HSML 1300: Intro to the Helping Profession

What is a theory and why is it important?

A theory is a way of explaining something that we can observe, such as how people behave and change throughout their lives. A theory helps us understand why people do what they do, and how they are affected by the world around them.

Some theories are very broad and can explain many different aspects of life, such as how we think, feel, learn, grow, and relate to others. These are called comprehensive theories, and they are useful because they can help us understand people at any stage of life.

Other theories are more narrow and focus on a specific area of human behavior or development, such as how we solve problems, make decisions, express our sexuality, break the law, or cope with aging. These are called limited-scope theories, and they are useful because they can help us understand people in certain situations or contexts.

Here are some of the reasons why theories are important in the social sciences:

• Theories help us to make sense of the world around us.
• Theories help us to predict how people will behave.
• Theories help us to develop interventions to improve people's lives.
• Theories help us to teach others about human behavior and development.

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To learn more about the concept of a theory refer to the following:

• Shoemaker, P. J., Tankard, J. W., & Lasorsa, D. L. (2003). How to build social science theories. SAGE Publications.

• Lechte, J. (2003). Theory. In Key contemporary concepts : From abjection to zenos paradox. SAGE Publications.

• OLeary, Z. (2007). Scientific method. In The social science jargon buster : The key terms you need to know. SAGE Publications.

• Thomas, M., & Pierson, J. (2010). Dictionary of social work : The definitive a to z of social work and social care. McGraw-Hill Education.

RESPONDENT LEARNING THEORY

Respondent learning theory is a way of explaining how we learn to connect certain things with certain reactions. For example, a dog can learn to drool when it hears a bell, if the bell is always followed by food. This theory is based on the experiments of a scientist named Ivan Pavlov. Respondent learning theory can help us understand how we develop and change our behavior throughout our lives. It can also help us treat some problems such as fears, stress, and prejudice.

For more information on this theory view, Bruce A. Thyer's chapter on Respondent Learning Theory.

A notable theorist is Ivan Pavlov.

For more information about Ivan Pavlov read the following books: 

• Todes, D. (2000). Ivan pavlov : Exploring the animal machine. Oxford University Press.
• Todes, D. P. (2014). Ivan Pavlov: A Russian life in science. Oxford University Press

OPERANT LEARNING THEORY

Operant learning theory, created by B.F. Skinner and influenced by E.L. Thorndike, explains how we learn from the consequences of our actions. According to this theory, we are more likely to repeat a behavior if it leads to a good outcome (reward) and less likely to repeat it if it leads to a bad outcome (punishment). This type of learning, known as operant conditioning, can be used in various situations such as teaching, counseling, training animals, and changing behavior.

In operant conditioning, the consequences of a behavior change the likelihood of that behavior occurring in the future. There are two main types of consequences: reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring, while punishment decreases it.

There are four types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment.

1. Positive reinforcement involves presenting a pleasant stimulus after a behavior to increase its likelihood of being repeated. For example, giving a child a sticker after they brush their teeth.
2. Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior to increase its likelihood of being repeated. For example, taking a child out of the cold after they put on their coat.
3. Positive punishment involves presenting an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior to decrease its likelihood of being repeated. For example, spanking a child after they hit their sibling.
4. Negative punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus after a behavior to decrease its likelihood of being repeated. For example, taking away TV privileges from a child after they misbehave.

For more information on this theory read Stephen E. Wong's chapter on Operant Learning Theory.

• The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Operant and Classical Conditioning provides additional information on both Operant Learning Theory and Respondent Learning Theory (Classical Conditioning).
• For more information about B.F. Skinner's thought see Operant Conditioning and the Experimental Analysis of Behavior in The Psychology of B F Skinner.

Cognitive Behavioral Theory

Cognitive behavioral theory explains how an individual’s thoughts affect their feelings and actions. Negative or unrealistic thoughts can lead to negative feelings and behaviors, such as depression, anxiety, anger, or guilt. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a type of psychotherapy that helps individuals change their thoughts to improve their mood and behavior. CBT teaches skills such as facing fears, challenging negative thoughts, solving problems, and relaxing the body and mind.

CBT is based on the principle that an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are interconnected. By identifying and challenging negative thoughts, individuals can develop more helpful and realistic thoughts. CBT also helps individuals develop new skills and behaviors to cope with difficult situations.

The core principles of CBT include collaboration between the therapist and client, Socratic questioning to identify and challenge negative thoughts, homework assignments to practice skills learned in therapy, a focus on the present, and an emphasis on coping skills. CBT has been shown to be effective in treating a wide range of psychological problems, including anxiety, depression, and eating disorders. It is a short-term, focused therapy that can help individuals change their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

• Collaboration: The therapist and client work together as a team to achieve the client's goals.
• Socratic questioning: The therapist uses Socratic questioning to help the client to identify and challenge their negative thoughts.
• Homework: The client is given homework assignments to practice the skills they learn in therapy.
• Focus on the present: CBT focuses on the client's current problems and how to overcome them.
• Emphasis on coping skills: CBT teaches the client coping skills to deal with difficult situations.

Key theorist: Aaron Beck

For more information on this theory view, Paula S. Nurius and Rebecca J. Macy's chapter on Cognitive Development Theory.

• See below for additional information:

  • O'Donohue, W. T., & Fisher, J. E. (Eds.). (2012). Cognitive behavior therapy : Core principles for practice. John Wiley & Sons.

  • Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Worksheets: 65+ Ready-To-Use CBT Worksheets to Motivate Change, Practice New Behaviors and Regulate Emotion

  • CBT Made Simple : A Clinician's Guide to Practicing Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

  • Bond, F. W., & Dryden, W. (Eds.). (2005). Handbook of brief cognitive behaviour therapy. John Wiley & Sons.

Attachment Theory

Attachment theory, developed by John Bowlby, explains how individuals form close and lasting relationships with others. According to this theory, infants have a biological need to form attachments with their caregivers in order to survive and thrive. These early attachments shape an individual’s patterns of relating to others, known as attachment styles. There are four main attachment styles: secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-ambivalent, and disorganized. Secure attachment is associated with positive emotional development, while insecure attachment is associated with negative emotional development.

Attachment disorders are a group of mental health conditions characterized by problems with attachment. These disorders can be caused by a variety of factors, including neglect, abuse, and trauma. Treatment for attachment disorders typically involves psychotherapy, such as attachment-based therapy.

Attachment-based therapy is specifically designed to help individuals with attachment disorders. The therapy focuses on helping the client develop a secure attachment with the therapist and learn how to form secure attachments with others. The therapy typically involves providing a safe and supportive environment for the client to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences; exploring the client’s attachment history; providing the client with the care and support they missed out on in early childhood; and teaching the client skills for managing their emotions and forming healthy relationships.

John Bowlby was a key theorist in the development of Attachment theory and Mary Ainsworth research provided empirical support to Bowlby’s theoretical work.

To learn more about attachment theory read Carney and Young’s chapter Attachment Theory

See Also:

• Heard, D., McCluskey, U., & Lake, B. (2012). Attachment therapy with adolescents and adults: Theory and practice post Bowlby. Taylor & Francis.
• Attachment and Dynamic Practice: An Integrative Guide for Social Workers and Other Clinicians
• Attachment: 60 Trauma-Informed Assessment and Treatment Interventions Across the Lifespan
• Attachment Across the Life Cycle
• Attachment and Human Survival

Psychosocial theory

Psychosocial theory is a biopsychosocial approach to human development that emphasizes the interaction between biological, psychological, and social factors. Erik Erikson developed this theory, which proposes that individuals progress through eight stages of psychosocial development throughout their lives.

Each stage is characterized by a psychosocial crisis that must be resolved in order to move on to the next stage. The eight stages are:

• Trust vs. mistrust (infancy): The infant learns to trust their caregiver or develop mistrust.
• Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (early childhood): The child learns to be independent or develop shame and doubt.
• Initiative vs. guilt (preschool): The child learns to take initiative or develop guilt.
• Industry vs. inferiority (school age): The child learns to be industrious or develop inferiority.
• Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence): The adolescent learns to develop a sense of identity or experience role confusion.
• Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood): The adult learns to form close relationships or experience isolation.
• Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood): The adult learns to be productive or experience stagnation.
• Integrity vs. despair (late adulthood): The adult looks back on their life with satisfaction or despair.

The successful resolution of each stage leads to the development of a healthy personality. The unsuccessful resolution of a stage can lead to the development of problems in later life.

Psychosocial theory has been used to understand a wide range of human behaviors and problems, including personality disorders, addiction, and mental illness. It has also been used to develop interventions for these problems.

Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development is characterized by a conflict between two opposing forces. The successful resolution of each conflict leads to the development of a positive personality trait, while the unsuccessful resolution leads to the development of a negative personality trait.

For example, in the trust vs. mistrust stage, the infant is faced with the conflict between trusting their caregiver and mistrusting them. If the infant is able to trust their caregiver, they will develop a sense of trust, which is a positive personality trait. However, if the infant is unable to trust their caregiver, they will develop a sense of mistrust, which is a negative personality trait.

Psychosocial theory has been criticized for being too deterministic. Some critics argue that the theory does not allow for individual differences or free will. However, Erikson argued that the theory is not deterministic, and that individuals have the ability to shape their own development.

The book Ego Identity: A Handbook for Psychosocial Research by James E. Marcia is based on the work of Erik Erikson. Marcia's theory of ego identity builds on Erikson's theory by proposing that ego identity is a multidimensional construct that includes exploration and commitment. Exploration is the process of trying out different roles and identities, while commitment is the process of making a decision about who you are and what you believe in.

Marcia's theory has been influential in the field of psychology, and it has been used to understand a variety of topics, such as adolescent development, career choice, and mental health.

See Also: 

Marcia, J. E., Waterman, A. S., Matteson, D. R., Archer, S. L., & Orlofsky, J. L. (1993). Ego identity : A handbook for psychosocial research. Springer.

Greene, R. R., (2012). Psycho Social Theory. In B. A. Thyer (Ed.), Human behavior in the social environment: Theories for social work practice. (193-223). John Wiley & Sons.

Person-Centered Theory

Person-centered therapy is a humanistic approach to psychology that emphasizes self-actualization and the individual's capacity for growth and change. Developed by Carl Rogers, the theory states that all people have an innate drive to become fully functioning individuals. The best way to help people achieve this goal is to provide them with a supportive and non-judgmental environment.

The core conditions of person-centered therapy are

• Empathy: the ability to understand and share the client's feelings and experiences.
• Unconditional Positive Regard: the acceptance of the client without judgment.
• Genuineness: Being authentic and transparent with the client.

When these conditions are present, clients can explore their thoughts and feelings without fear of judgment or rejection. This can lead to increased self-awareness, self-acceptance, and personal growth.

Person-centered therapy has been used to treat a variety of mental health problems, including anxiety, depression, and personality disorders. It has also been used in other settings, such as education and business, to improve communication and relationships.

See Also:

Patterson, C. A. (2012). Person Centered Theory. In B. A. Thyer (Ed.), Human behavior in the social environment: Theories for social work practice. (193-223). John Wiley & Sons.

Barrett-Lennard, G. T. (1999). Carl Rogers helping system: Journey and substance. SAGE.

Motschnig, R., & Nykl, L. (2014). Person-centred communication: Theory, skills and practice. McGraw-Hill Education.

Plas, J. M., & Lewis, S. K. E. (2000). Person-centered leadership for nonprofit organizations: Management that works in high pressure systems. SAGE.

Genetic Theory

Genetic Theory is a biological approach that explores the role of genes in human behavior. According to this theory, genes can influence behavior including the transmission of traits from parents to children, mutations that can lead to changes in gene function, and interactions between genes and the environment. 

Human service and helping professionals should be aware of the role of genes in human behavior but should also be careful not to overemphasize their role. Social workers need to be aware of the role of genetics in human development and how it can affect their clients. For example, social workers may need to provide genetic counseling to clients who are at risk for certain diseases or who are considering having children. Social workers may also need to advocate for policies that promote genetic health and prevent discrimination against people with genetic conditions.

Key genetic theorist include 

• Gregor Mendel: Mendel is considered the "father of genetics" because he was the first to study the transmission of traits from parents to children.
• James Watson and Francis Crick: Watson and Crick were the scientists who discovered the structure of DNA, which is the molecule that carries genetic information.
• Robert Plomin: Plomin is a psychologist who is known for his research on the genetics of personality and intelligence.

See Also:

Joseph, J. (2004). Gene illusion: Genetic research in psychiatry and psychology under the microscope. Algora Publishing.

Asbury, K., & Plomin, R. (2013). G is for genes: The impact of genetics on education and achievement. John Wiley & Sons.

Richardson, K. (2017). Genes, brains, and human potential: The science and ideology of intelligence. Columbia University Press.

Hosken, D. J., Hunt, J., & Wedell, N. (Eds.). (2019). Genes and behaviour: Beyond nature-nurture. John Wiley & Sons.

Patterson, C. A. (2012). Genetic Theory. In B. A. Thyer (Ed.), Human behavior in the social environment: Theories for social work practice. (263-295). John Wiley & Sons.

Ecosystems Theory

General systems theory, developed by Von Bertalanffy, is a multidisciplinary framework that seeks to understand the common principles underlying all systems, whether biological, physical, or social. This theory proposes that all systems are characterized by properties such as wholeness, interdependence, homeostasis, equifinality, and morphogenesis. By understanding these common principles, one can gain a better understanding of the world. General systems theory is a more general theory that can be applied to all types of systems. This theory influenced ecosystems theory which focused on the different parts of ecological systems.

Ecosystems theory, developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, is a biopsychosocial framework that views individuals as being embedded in a complex system of interrelated parts, including their family, community, and larger society. This theory emphasizes the importance of interactions between individuals and their environment and how these interactions can affect a person’s development and well-being.

According to ecosystems theory, individuals are nested within a series of concentric circles or ecological systems. The innermost circle is the microsystem, which includes the individual’s immediate environment such as their family, friends, and school. The mesosystem consists of the connections between the microsystems, such as the relationships between a child’s family and their school. The exosystem is the next circle out and includes social institutions that indirectly affect the individual, such as their parents’ workplace or the neighborhood they live in. The macrosystem is the outermost circle and includes larger cultural and societal influences on the individual, such as their country’s economic system or political climate.

Ecosystems theory is used in social work to understand the factors that contribute to a person’s problems and to develop interventions that address these factors. For example, a social worker might use ecosystems theory to understand how a child’s behavior problems are related to their family dynamics, school environment, and neighborhood. The social worker could then develop interventions that address these factors, such as family therapy, school-based interventions, or community organizing.

See Also:

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.

Mayes, L., & Lewis, M. (Eds.). (2012). The Cambridge handbook of environment in human development: A handbook of theory and measurement. Cambridge University Press.

Patterson, C. A. (2012). Ecosystem Theory. In B. A. Thyer (Ed.). Human behavior in the social environment: Theories for social work practice. (297-325). John Wiley & Sons.

Bertalanffy, L. (1968). Passages from general system theory. Panarchy. http://www.panarchy.org/vonbertalanffy/systems.1968.html